Abstract: Haji Dirie Hirsi was a Somali nationalist who from the mid 1930s advocated for Somali independence under a Somali elite government. He gave voice to his conviction before the United Nation's fact-finding commission in January 1948. As the leading Somali representative of the Chamber of Commerce of Mogadishu he severely criticized the earlier Italian colonization and opposed the return of the Italian administration. However, Somali opposition, also strongly voiced by the leaders of the Somali Youth League, was disregarded and the Italians came back under a UN trusteeship. Haji Dirie continued the struggle for independence in conjunction with the SYL, aiming at a unified Somali government. Concentrating on his business affairs, he never took an official political position. Nevertheless, despite these background activities, he remained for many years, until the mid 1950s, the most influential political leader of Somalia.
1. GROWING UP IN A PERIOD OF TURMOIL
One day in 1922 he heard that his sister Faraho had married an Amhara who was believed by the people to be a Christian. Infuriated by this news, he left Mogadishu immediately. When he arrived early in the morining at his sister's house at Jawhar, he saw her husband performing the fajr prayer, and he learned that he was actually an Eritrean Muslim from Mussawa.
Subsequently the two brothers, Farah and Dirie, opened a tea shop in Jawhar. Their customers were workers from the industrial sugar complex of the Duke of Abruzzi. After some time they enlarged the shop and transformed it into a little restaurant. They employed one of their sisters as a cook. There is no doubt that Dirie was a self-made man, starting from very modest beginnings.
2.1. Activities in Northern Somalia
Around 1924 Dirie left Jawhar for Bargaal, north of Raas Haafuun, where he set up a trading business. He worked together with an Anglo-French-Jewish company from Aden, exporting hides and importing foodstuffs and clothes for Somali customers. His business also included trade in pearls, amber and incense (luubaan).
Later he extended his business by taking advantage of an Italian salt pan established between Bargaal and Hurdiyo (Raas Haafuun) by a group of Lombardi industrialists in 1920 (Lewis 1980: 96). There were many Somali workers for whom he supplied the necessities of daily life. Soon he also provided lodgings owned by himself for the workers. After some years he was not only the proprietor of houses but also of shops and of small boats bringing the goods from the ships to the shore. Paying taxes and customs fees, he became fully integrated into the expanding money economy. In 1932 he was one of seven Somalis to go on the hajj to Mecca. By that time he had become a well-known business man.
However, he only employed people from his own group. This was resented by the local members of the Osmaan Mahmuud clan, who began to plot against him. The Somali interpreters of the Italians pretended that he had insulted the king of Italy. He was therefore sentenced to prison and was taken to Mogadishu.
2.2. A new start in Mogadishu
Having been transferred to Mogadishu in 1932, Dirie befriended the prison director by providing him with natural pearls for his wife. During his six months in prison, his commercial assets from the north were transferred to Mogadishu by Haji Mahmuud Abdille Dirir, a cousin of his later wife.
By that time Mogadishu was an expanding town. The many people flocking to the capital needed accommodation. Haji Dirie established a quarry close to the town where stones for the new buildings were produced.
His business was starting to thrive when the old problem with the Osmaan Mahmuud people arose again. He therefore decided to organize a meeting (gogol) with them in order to come to an understanding. He said that being all northerners and foreigners in Benaadir, they should unite their forces instead of fighting each other. From that time onward there was cooperation and mutual understanding. His friendship with Boqor Osmaan Mahmuud grew out of this new relationship and lasted until his death.
2.3. Opportunities in the capital
By 1934 Haji Dirie was a constructor himself. He built houses in Mogadishu and sold them to Somalis. An important construction was the commercial centre at Hamar Weeyne which he sold to Somali traders. They opened shops, officies and restaurants in it. It was close to the Suuq of Hamar Weeyne and later became known as the Gold Market. However, building houses for the Europeans was reserved for Italians. He very much resented this colonial colour bar.
In 1935 Mogadishu became an important base for the military operations of the Italians against Ethiopia. Governor Graziani organized the construction of roads, improved the harbour facilities and accommodated about 50 000 Italians in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia. In addition he recruited six thousand Somalis known as Zaptié. Moreover, he established and maintained an efficient base for the continuous war effort. Haji Dirie took advantage of these new opportunies by providing for the needs of the many Somalis and Italians concentrated in the capital. Again his business increased.
2.4. Creating a family
In 1935 he married Hawa Hirsi Nur who at that time was sixteen years old. Her parents requested from Haji Dirie that she should remain close to them in Mogadishu. Their first house was an ordinary building in Iskuraran which was a quarter for Somalis. Earlier he was married successively to several other wives. Three wives each gave him a child: Fatuma (Abdullahi), Timiro (Abdulaziz) and Khadija (Fatuun). In 1937 he married Hawa Hoosh who became the co-wife of Hawa Hirsi.
In the same year he built the great house of the family in Hamar Weyne. He had to rent it first to Italians because the whole area was reserved for them. The colour bar during the Fascist period was so strict that even the rent could not be received directly from the Italian tenants. Instead it had to be sent to his bank account.
2.5. Further trading activities
At some stage Haji Dirie extended his trade to southern countries. He exported frankincense (luubaan), fish, ghee (subag) and hides - the only items of trade allowed for Somalis - to Zanzibar and Mombasa, and he imported from there spices . He also traded with clothes which came originally from Europe.
Around 1942, shortly after the beginning of the British administration, he set up a company for wholesale import and export trade. He and other Somalis were allowed to participate in trade which previously was restricted to Italians and other non-Somalis.
2.6. Becoming an entrepreneur
For transport Haji Dirie first rented a ship and later bought one. Eventually he purchased a steamer and employed a European captain and his crew. He was the first Somali to own such a big sea-going cargo ship, which even went to Italy, and he became the most important Somali businessman. The ship mainly transported lifestook from Somalia to Port Said and sometimes to Alexandria. Haji Dirie organized trade from his office in Mogadishu. Communication was by telegrams and letters. The writing was done for him by his secretary, Hassan Muhammad, known as Hassan Waquye. Later, Dirie participated in the Banana Company of Somalia, founded by Italians in 1935 under the name of Regia Azienda Monopolio Banana. He joined the company, together with other Somali businessmen, in 1955. In 1963 the Somali government became the most important shareholder of the company.
Dirie also held shares in Somalia's only textile company, which was at first exclusively Italian. Towards 1955, together with the Italian businessman Nazari, he became the majority shareholder.
At some stage after the Second World War he bought a navy ship, converted for commercial use. It was used for the transport of livestock (camels, cows, goats and sheep) to Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the Emirates. Thus he was the first Somali to own a modern steamboat. When it was shipwrecked it was a great financial loss for him.
As will be apparent from his ambitious and innovative projects, the driving force behind his business activies was never the desire to amass riches. He was more concerned with the future of his people and of Somalia than with his own private success. In this sense his vision and endeavour were more concerned with national politics than with private advantage.
3. CONCERN FOR PUBLIC WELFARE
3.1. Haji Dirie as a leading elder in Mogadishu From the end of the 1930s onward Haji Dirie held the position of the leading elder (odey) of the Daarood in Mogadishu, who faced various difficulties when settling in the capital. Having many contacts with other influential people, he took first steps towards a future Somali tribal government by promoting the settlement of the nomadic Daarood in the southern coastal towns. His task was then to supervise this movement in Mogadishu, while Adam Gass took charge of Merca, and another elder of Kisimayo.
3.2. Founding of a school in Mogadishu
Although Haji Dirie had no formal education, he was quick to learn from his foreign business friends. These contacts and his travels in other countries opened his eyes and made him understand how much there was to be done in Somalia. In 1932 on his own initiative he founded the first full primary school in Somalia that was adapted to the Somali situation. Previously, Somalis could only attend one of the 29 Italian elementary schools in the country for a period of three years. During the Fascist period of Italian administration, these schools served the sole purpose of providing interpreters for the government officials.
The director of the school was Muallim Jaama'a Bilaal, who was born and went to school in Aden where he became a teacher in a renowned school. Later, the Sultan of Majerteen employed him as his secretary in Haafuun. He was the one who wrote up the treaties between Boqor Usman and the Italians (Abdallah Farah). When Boqor Usman was dismissed by the Italians in 1927, he was taken to Mogadishu and put under house arrest (Lewis 1980:99). Muallim Jaama'a was likewise taken to the capital for close observation by the authorities.
In 1932 Haji Dirie employed him as a teacher and offered him a monthly salary (Ali 2005:161 has 1938). He also provided a modest building for the school in Iskuraran, and a lodging for Muallim Jaama'a in the same quarter. Haji Dire himself organized the fabrication of the benches and provided the slates and other necessary materials. Ali Kar bought the books (Abdallah Farah). It was a modern type of teaching in Arabic, quite different from the traditional Quranic teaching (dugsi). The curriculum was that of Aden, based on five books, including Hidayat al-Islam and a book for arithmetic. The parents contributed to the upkeep of the school and later on probably also provided the salary of the teacher. Open-minded Somalis, including those from other regions, sent their children to the school for modern education (Ali 2005:161).
In 1941, the British occupiers of the country intended to nationalize the school. The official in charge of education, the Senior Civil Affairs Officer Duncun, asked Muallim Jaama'a for his agreement but he was referred to Haji Dirie and some other Somali notabilities (Abdallah Farah). When Duncan met Haji Dirie, he expressed his high esteem for what he had done for the country in providing the foundation of modern education. After nationalizing the school, the British moved it to Hamar Weyne, near the De Martino Hospital. When it became too small for the many children, they transferred it to Hamar Jabjab. At that time the school was financed by the department of education, and Muallim Jaama'a became a government employee. The teaching was in English and Arabic (Laitin 1977: 79). In 1944 there were 220 pupils who learned to read and write in Roman as well as in Arabic characters (Ali 2005: 162 n. 131). In 1950, when the Italians came back and began to prepare the country for independence, they took over the school at Hamar Jabjab and extended its curriculum for secondary schools. People did not forget the initiator of the first Somali school and they remembered Haji Dirie for a long time as the founder of modern Somali education.
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| Muallim Jaama'a in the school of Hamar Jabjab in 1942 (Dower 1944: 64) |
When there was a famine from September 1946 to June 1947, Haji Dirie contributed to the founding and running of a centre for the destitute, called the Suus kitchen. The popular name is derived from a measurement of grain of 1 kg. This amount was distributed once a week to individual persons.
3.4. Organization of support for Egypt
In 1956, during the Suez crisis, together with some other Somali traders, Haji Dirie organized practical support for the Egyptians by sending live animals for the Egyptian army. He was also one of the main contributors of donations in money. Somali traders also tried to provide a voluntary military force recruited in Somalia, but this was prevented by the Italian colonial administration.
4. STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
4.1. Participation in the founding of the Somali Youth League
The role of Haji Dirie in the foundation of the Somali Youth League in 1943 is not well documented. He probably was its most important financier: he provided the first office of the League in Via Roma, and later headed the group of supporters who bought the well-known building of the SYL in Dhagaxtuur. As a member of a senior and more respected age-group, he was very influential behind the scenes by establishing contacts and by promoting various political activities. The 'youngsters' of the SYL were good for programmes and proclamations, while he, as the leading elder, could see to their implementation. Having financial means at his disposal, he was unrestricted by group considerations, and he was free to launch activities which he himself considered urgent. These undertakings for the general benefit earned him great respect among the people of Mogadishu and many others.
4.2. Appreciation of the Bevin plan for Great Somaliland
Haji Dirie and his friends in the Somali Youth League appreciated the proposition made by the British Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, in 1946. It suggested that the Somali territory should be united in order to create a Great Somaliland under British administration (Pankhurst 1951:179). This would have implied unification of most of the Somali territories: former Italian Somalia, British Somaliland, the Reserved Area (from Jigjiga to the border of Somaliland), and Ogaden. Unfortunately, some influential members of the SYL were reluctant to accept this proposition, apparently fearing that the influence of the Darood would become too strong. Those persons pleaded strongly for a UN administration under a four-power commission: Great Britain, France, the USA and the Soviet Union.
4.3. Leading role in the Chamber of Commerce
From its foundation in 1944, Haji Dirie was a member of the Somalia Chamber of Commerce. In 1947 the Chamber of Commerce comprised 220 members: 120 Italians, 45 Indians, 22 Somalis, 2 British, 2 Jews and 1 Eritrean. In addition, the Chamber had a leading committee consistin fo five members: Four Italians, two Indians, one British, one Somali and one Arab. Haji Dirie was the only Somali member of the Committee and for unknown reasons he was also titled Council member ( Pankhurst 1951:244).In this function he was by the end of the British period the only Somali in a position of responsability for the whole country (Hearing 1948:1).
In January 1948, a United Nations fact-finding commission visited Mogadishu. Haji Dirie was by then the leading Somali representative of the Chamber of Commerce of Mogadishu. The commission was set up by the Allied Council of Foreign Ministers which controlled the British military administration at the time. It comprised representatives from Britain, the USA, France and the Soviet Union. Haji Dirie rejected the pro-Italian Memorandum drawn up by the Italian members of the Chamber of Commerce and presented to the commission. He strongly opposed the return of the Italian administration. His criticism of Italian colonialism contained five major points submitted to the UN fact-finding commission in January 1948: 1. The expropriation of Somali farmers, especially in Jowhar (Villagio de Abruzzi) and Jenale (near Merca) for the benefit of Italian settlers. 2. The lack of schools for teaching agricultural knowledge to Somali peasants. 3. The inability of the Italian administration to provide Somali peasants with appropriate agricultural tools and machines. 4. The food production policy implemented by the Italians resulted in the importation of oil, millet and grain from Kenya, Egypt and even Italy, this being changed by the British since their takeover of administration in Somalia. 5. During the Italian period, according to a Vice-Regal Decree Somalis were forbidden to export local export crops. This policy also being reversed by the British, at the beginning of 1948 there were 200 Somalis engaged in the export-import trade, 80 of them in Mogadishu. He produced a copy of the decree and handed it over to the Commissioners.
4.5. Protest against the Italian takeover
On 5th October 1949 the SYL organized a great demonstration in Mogadishu against the decision of the United Nations in favour of an Italian Trusteeship for Somalia (Osman 2001:96). People carried banners expressing their opposition to the return of the Italian administration. Indeed, the decision of the UN ignored the demand of the SYL for either complete independence or a trusteeship of four nations (Britain, the United States, France and the Soviet Union), excluding Italy, under the United Nations. The demonstration took place on 7th October and although it was intended to be peaceful it generated into violence later known as dhagaxtuur ("Throwing stones"). Subsequently the British Administration forbade all political organizations and the police arrested the leaders of SYL. Some were imprisoned in Mogadishu and others were deported to rural areas. Haji Dirie, Mahmuud Maalinguur, Dahir Haji Osman and Mohammad Ottavio were sent to El Bur, north of Magadishu, where they were well received by the local population. When they came back to Mogadishu early in the year 1950, they were celebrated as national heroes. Nevertheless, there was a strong opposition between the anti- and pro-Italians. On 6th March, Haji Dirie and Musa Boqor were waylaid and stabbed in the streets of Mogadishu by a group of adherents of Italy, one of whom was later convicted of assault.
When the Italians took over the administration in April 1950, they could only rely on a few organized people. The SYL was in opposition and therefore the Italians had to reckon with a national opposition that watched their dealings carefully.
4.6. Attitude towards the Italian administration
In 1950 the Italian Trusteeship Administration (AFIS) took over responsibility for Somalia from the British authorities. According to Lewis, the arrival of the Italians had the character of a military occupation (Lewis 2002: 140). The Italians began to dismiss most of the Somalis who had achieved responsible positions in the civil service under the British. In particular most of the police officers were arrested and imprisoned and kept in jail for months without being informed of the charges against them. They were finally sentenced to terms of imprisonment with hard labour ranging from one to five years (Pankhurst 1951: 440). Some notables like Haji Dirie, well known for his anti-Italian attitude, were also put in jail. The Italians did their utmost to discredit the strength and popularity of the League. In particular they accused its prominent members of being spies for the former British administration (Pankhurst 1951: 434). The AFIS administration was only able to impose such draconic measures because it exploited the latent hostilities between Somali groups, and in particular the hostility between the Daarood and the Hawiye. The Abgal and the Mirifle, united in the so-called Somalia Conference organization (Hizbia Digil-Mirifle - HDM), welcomed the return of the Italians, hoping that the new colonial overlords would reverse the supposed pro-Daarood policy of the British (Castagno 1964: 525). At that point the Daarood leaders in Mogadishu, including Haji Dirie, insisted that they would return north to “their own territory” (Majertenia) if the administration did not reverse its “anti-Daarood” policy (Castagno 1964: 525).
In spite of these conflicts, the SYL accepted to cooperate to some extent with the AFIS. Their delegation met the Italian Chief Administrator, Giovanni Fornari, on April 17, 1950, two days after the official ceremony with the traditional leaders. Haji Dirie and Musa Boqor were among them (Mukhtar 1988, 78-79). The AFIS established a Territorial Council composed of 35 members, most of whom belonged to political parties such as SYL and HDM. In the long run, the members of the Territorial Council became the leading Somali politicians.
Haji Dirie did not belong to the Territorial Council and therefore his political influence began to decrease at the beginning of the Italian period. He was, however, active in several advisory councils. In 1949 he was the only Somali affiliate to the Economic Council headed by Alberto Mazzi. He was one of the nine members of the Boad of Construction (Corriere 13-21/8/49). In 1951 the AFIS established the Consiglio Economico della Somalia, which was composed of four principal sections comprising 14 offices. In March, Haji Dirie became a member of the Office of Importation and Exportation. This office was composed of nine members, of which Haji Dirie was the only Somali (Corriere 22/3/52).
4.7. Non-participation in self-government
Self-government in Somalia began in 1956. People expected Haji Dirie to take a prominent position as a political leader. He refused, thereby depriving himself of opportunities which others obtainedand used to favour their own people. During the period when political positions were important for general influence, the distribution of jobs and other opportunities, he was glad not to be involved in what he sensed would lead to corruption. He was still one of the great leaders, but others pushed themselves into the forefront by their greater influence in terms of followers and clientage. When the preparations for independence created new opportunities in terms of power and influence, heremained a businessman. He continued to work, to promote ideas and to advise, but others became more prominent. All this contributed to the eclipse of his name in historical writings, which have been more concerned with official positions than with de facto leadership. Only insiders knew how much he continued to influence Somali politics.
4.8. Facing the tribal issue
Early during his career, Haji Dirie was closely involved in affairs with the Majerteen and thus became a close friend of Boqor Usman. After his arrival in Mogadishu he therefore tried to help the Daarood in their attempts to settle in Mogadishu as the capital of the whole country. With growing political awareness he understood the danger of clanism for Somalia.
As a leading member of the Somali Youth League, Haji Dirie adopted an anti-tribalist attitude. It was well known that all members of the SYL swore an oath that they would neglect their clan affiliation and give absolute priority to their national identity. From that moment onward they tried to be exclusively Somali and to repress their clan identity as much as possible. This attitude became public when Somali elders complained to the members of the tripartite UN Advisory Council about the practice of the Italian administrators of asking people about their clan affiliation. A prominent member of the SYL, Mohamud Faccia, wrote in the New Times and Ethiopia News (1/7/1950): "Britian encouraged the people to think in terms of one word, Somali, whereas the Italians now do everything to replant the tribal divisions in the minds of the people. Every Somali is obliged to give not only his name, but his tribe and subtribe." (Pankhurst 1951: 435).
After independence many Somali politicians began to forget their former oath and favoured their clansmen over others. In 1960 the Prime Minister, Abd al-Rashid Shermake, proposed that Haji Dirie should become a minister. He refused the offer by pointing out that it had become common pratice to give positions according to tribal considerations. He was of the opinion that positions should be given by merit and not by clan membership. He thought that education was the best instrument to fight tribalism.
In Haji Dirie's house there was an atmosphere of urbanity which made thinking in terms of clan origins irrelevant. The children heard about such issues only from relatives arriving from the countryside. A good example of Haji Dirie's anti-tribalist attitude is his reaction to a question put by his son Bashir during the 1967 presidential election.The choice was between the incumbent president, Aden Abdulle from the Hawiye, and Abdul Rashid Ali from the Daarood. Bashir, who at that time was sixteen years old, wanted to know from his father who was the winner. He therefore asked: "Did we or did they win?" The father was furious at this expression of clanism and punished him. He told him that he should never distinguish between "us" and "them" on the basis of clan membership. He insisted that we were all Somalis and that the more qualified candidate should win. He adopted the same anti-clanic attitude in all other circumstances, knowing very well how destructive clanism could be for the nation.
5.1. Concentration on business
At the time of the rise of official Somali leadership, Haji Dirie remained in the background. He felt that his concentration on business would be more effective than any purely political activity. He therefore never accepted any official position in either the SYL or, after independence in 1960, in the government. After having gained commercial experience in the export-import sector, he joined the Italo-Somali Agricultural Company when it was opened up by the British to Somali membership. At first he only held shares in the company, but later he became a leading member of its administrative council. By his own initiative he set up a soap factory, a factory for producing sesame oil, a factory for ice and a printing company, complementing two earlier printing companies. He also became the president of the important salt pan at Jazira, which produced salt for southern Somalia and exported it to other East African countries.
5.2. Concern for public issues
When there was a drought, Haji Dirie helped his people in Galkayo and Garowe in the north of Somalia. He also organized support when there were inundations in Jamaale and Merka in the south for the people whom he knew. He sent his trucks loaded with bags of maize and rice and tins of oil for distribution in the places he was familiar with. When the situation was very critical, other wealthy traders joined him in the effort to alleviate the hardship of the people whom he knew.
He also regularly supported poor families who asked for his help because they were facing material difficulties. Every Friday before the midday prayer, some poor people came to his office where the secretary gave each person ten shillings as alms. Once a year, he paid his Zakat to poor relatives and acquaintances. Moreover, he helped his close relatives and in particular those in the countryside when they were in need. If they had children he encouraged them to send their children to school so that they might improve the lives of their families.
Helping gifted individuals
Ice blocks free of charge for people mourning.
Reading of newspapers and the Quran, no novels.
6. SIYAD BARRE'S RULE: SILENT OPPOSITION
After the seizure of power by Siyad Barre in 1969, commercial affairs suffered from state interference. Haji Dirie's enterprises were seriously affected by central control. In particular the Textile Company had to pay taxes. Haji Dirie and the other shareholders closed the factory because of the heavy charges. Thus, an important attempt at local industrialization was brought to an end by the socialist government's obstruction of private enterprise.
Towards 1971 Haji Dirie became unable to continue his import-export business because government agencies took over this kind of private enterprise. At the same time, the two existing private printing presses, the one belonging to Haji Dirie and the other to the Catholic Mission, were nationalized. His other enterprises, like the factory for ice and the salt pan, continued to function privately.
Meanwhile, the prime minister, Mohamed Egaal, appointed him as political advisor of the Central Bank. He assumed that function for two years, from 1967 to 1969, until the military coup by Siyad Barre.
6.2. Dwindling influence in politics
Although Haji Dirie did not have any public office, he did not conceal his criticism of the socialist regime: he disapproved the nationalization of private enterprises, the mismanagement of state affairs, the tribal basis of power and the ideology of scientific socialism. Through his many contacts with important people, he remained an important eminence grise who actively followed public affairs. Insiders remember that he intervened personally by meeting the President in order to obtain revocation of the execution order against three high officials accused of planning to overthrow the government: Muhammad Ainanshe Guled, Salad Gabeyre Kidiya and Abdulkadir Abdulleh (Dheel). This intervention failed, the three were executed on 3rd July 1972, and from now on violent repression of political opposition became the rule. Haji Dire himself was threatened with imprisonment. Siyad Barre, however, acted personally as his protector by letting his entourage know that during his rule he should never be touched. Possibly this protection was not only the result of his former political activity but also of some personal service before his rise to power. Even the revolutionary guards (guulwade), who were very intrusive in the lives of normal people, finally respected the privacy of his house. His business affairs suffered increasingly from state interference, but he himself remained in an honorable position as a much respected fighter for independence, economic welfare and educational progress.
6.3. Private life
Haji Dirie had friends whom he met regularly. Among them wasthe Italian businessman, Nazari, who lived first in Mogadishu and later in South Africa. Haji Dirie regularly read two Arabic newspapers and the national daily Hidigta October.
6.4. The family
He had a large family. His financial means made it possible for him to send most of his children, boys and girls, to study abroad. His preferred country was Egypt but most of his children studied in Europe and America: Italy, France, Netherlands, England and the USA.
On the whole, he was very tolerant and encouraged his children, especially the boys, to have their own opinion but also to pray in the appropriate times, to lean hard at school and to take their responsibilities. With respect to the girls he was less demanding but he gave them the same educational opportunities as the boys.
There are three children from the earlier marriages:
* Abdullahi (Fatuma), born in 1930 was a car mechanic;
* Abdulaziz (Timiro), born in 1933 ???, studied architecture in Rome.
* Fatuun (Khadija), born in 1937, studied home economics in Mogadishu.
The children of Hawa Hirsi are:
* Saida, secondary school in Cairo, began Medical Studies in Bonn, Germany, and continued with English Literature in Jeddah and Cairo;
* Asha born in 1948, African Studies in New York;
* Habib born in 1950, Medical Studies in Bologna, Italy;
* Amina born in 1952, International Law in the USA;
* Kamar, born in 1955, Business Administration in Alabama and New York; * Abdisalam born in 1964, Electrical Engneering and Computer Science in George Mason, Fairfax, Virginia.
The children of Hawa Hoosh are:
* Mahmud, born in 1941, Law in Neuchâtel, Switzerland; * Abdulkadir, born in 1944, Economy in the Netherlands and in the USA; * Abdullah, born in 1946, Geology in Rome???
* Bashir, born in Elbur 1948, Medicine in Mogadishu;
* Tahir, born in 1949, Political Science, USA.
* Miriam, born in 1954, Nursing in Mogadishu;
* Omar, born in 1957, Economics at Lincoln, Missouri, USA.
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7. DEPARTURE AND AFTERMATH
Haji Dirie died on May 18, 1976 in Bonn (Germany) after being flown out for medical treatment . The Somali section of the BBC in London announced his death and broadcast a special programme to recall his achievements during the Somali struggle for national independence. He was buried in Mogadishu, following a well-attended public funeral.
Ali, Salah Mohamed (2005), Huddur and the History of Southern Somalia, Cairo.
Castagno, A. A. (1964) “Somali Republic”, in: James S. Coleman, and Carl G.
Rosberg, Political Parties and National Integration in
Tropical Africa, Berkeley, 512-559.
Dower, K. C. Gandar (1944), The First to be Freed, London.
Habib Haji Dirie, son of Haji Dirie (oral information 2009).
Hearing (1948) Ninth Hearing in Italian Somaliland, National Archives, Washington, CTM/D/L/4//I.C.COM.
Laitin, David (1977), Politics, Language, and Thought, Chicago.
Lewis, I. M, (2002) A Modern History of the Somali, 4th ed., Oxford.
Mukhtar, M. H., (1988) "The emergence and role of political parties in Somalia", Ufahamu 17, 1, 75-95.
I. FALL FROM PARADISE
II. GOG AND MAGOG
III. NEBI KHADAR - THE ITINERANT PROPHET
COMMENTARY: COMPARISON WITH GILGAMESH
IV. ARAWEELO
V. END OF TIME
VI. BEAUTY OF JOSEPH
VII. ETIOLOGICAL STORIES
VIII. ANNIMAL LEGENDS (BURTON)
I. FALL FROM PARADISE
1. Creation
At the beginning God created the world, the paradise, the hell and the angels. Later God wanted to create Adam having in mind to put the arrangement of the world into his hands. However, the angels suggested to God that Adam would bring a lot of trouble. In spite of this warning God created Adam, he created him from clay. After that he ordered the angels to prostrate before Adam. All of them accepted to do so except the devil who refused to execute the order of God. Instead of saying: "I who has been created from the light of God, how can I prostrate before a man created from clay?" he said: "I who has been made from hell-fire, how can I prostrate before a man created from clay"?
2. Fall of the devil
The devil begged God to forgive him to have been disobediant towards him. But God refused and took away from him the rank of an angel. He expelled him from heaven and told him that he would go to hell. After that the devil implored God to let him live until the day of resurrection. Again God refused but he agreed to let him live until the day of the blowing of the trumpet. At that time all human beings will be disappearing except a few. As for the devil he swore that between him and Adam and his descendants there would be animosity and fighting for ever. He would divert as many as he could from the straight path.
3. Adam and Eve in Paradise
Meanwhile Adam felt lonely in Paradise, therefore he implored God to give him a mate. God fulfilled his wish by creating Eve from his left rib so that he might not feel lonely and that they might multiply. God said to Adam and Eve: "Live in Paradise wherever you want, eat whatever you like, but do not eat from that tree". The particular tree was one of the many fruit bearing trees in Paradise. After that God said also: "Beware of the devil, do not listen to what he says, do not obey to him because he is your enemy." Some times later the devil saw Eve. When he saw that she was alone and that she was not afraid of him he told her to come close to him and to look at that well in front of them. Eve looked into the well and saw the image of two persons. The devil told her that the two persons were Adam and another woman. Forgetting that there were only two human beings in existence she believed him. The devil went one step further and said: "If you want that Adam loves only you, then give him a fruit from that particular tree to eat". It was the tree which God had instructed them not to eat its fruit. Eve convinced Adam to eat a fruit from that tree. By doing so Adam inadvertently disobeyed God and succumbed to the trick of the devil. This was the first time that the devil succeeded to divert Adam and Eve from the straight path.
4. Fall of Adam and Eve
God punished Adam and Eve by expelling them from paradise. Adam was deeply penitent and asked God to forgive him. God pardoned him but instructed him and Eve to go to earth where they should be responsible for all their dealings. From that time onward they would have to account for their sins.
5. Adam and Eve searching for each other When Adam and Eve came down to earth they lost sight of each other for one hundred years. Eve was looking for Adam day and night without respite. Adam however was looking for Eve only in day time, while in the night he rested and relaxed. When Eve finally found him she pretended that she was not seriously searching for him. Adam instead claimed that he was all the time looking for her. This behaviour is characteristic for women who do not like to show their feelings, while men are outspoken about them.
6. Cain and Abel
Shortly after that Eve delivered Cain and a twin sister. Later on she gave birth to Abel and also to a twin sister. There was a divine law that a twin boy should not marry his twin sister. Indeed, the earliest inhabitants had no choice but to marry their brothers and sisters in order to fulfil the divine command und to populate the earth. Therefore Cain was supposed to marry Abel's twin sister. However, he preferred to marry his own twin sister because she was more beautiful. Abel refused this transgression of the order. This was the first temptation of greediness that ever happened to human beings and this happened between two brothers. Cain considered his brother to be an obstacle to his desire. Therefore in order to achieve his purpose he killed his brother. Again, this was the first murder that ever happened in human history. For many years Cain carried the dead body of his brother on his shoulders. Finally God sent a raven which carried another dead bird and which then scratched the earth in order to bury that other bird. Cain saw what happened and he imitated the raven's behaviour by burying his brother.
7. Adam's gift to his descendants According to what we were told, Adam was promised by God that he would live for one thousand years, while his descendents would not reach more than sixty years. However, Adam donated sixty of his one thousand years to his descendents, so that they could reach one hundred and twenty years, while he himself would only live up to nine hundred und forty years. And so it was accomplished by the will of God.
Commentary:
This is a legend traditionally told by Somali women to their children. It is particularly appreciated by children in the evening when they are not yet ready to go to sleep. The Somalis consider that Adam and Eve are the great grandfather and the great grandmother of all human beings.
II. GOG AND MAGOG
1. Alexander erects a mountain Gog and Magoog (Yaajuuj and Maajuuj) were two giants who lived behind a mountain. People believe that they were the last survivors of a race of giants whom Awes al-Qarni (Alexander the Great) had put there in order to protect the human beings from their wickedness. Gog and Magog swore that they would come one day back to this world.
2. Gog and Magog work hard In order to achieve their come-back to the world Gog and Magog digged all day long in the mountain. When it became dark they had to stop digging saying to each other: "We have to stop now because of darkness. The remaining work we will finish tomorrow". They returned the following day and found that all the work of the previous day was for nothing. Nevertheless they began to dig again and continued until sunset. Once more they said to each other: "Now there is not much work left. Today it is too late, we will begin early the next morning and finish the work then." But again their work had disappeared. Thus, evry day their worked from morning to evening. Sometimes they stopped for a small break in order to drink and to eat. After that they continued their work. Each evening they thought that they would finish their task the next morning. Evry evening the omitted to say In sha' Allah "God willing" and evry morning they had to begin once more. They continued working year after year, century after century.
3. End of the world One day they will finally say In sha' Allah and the next day they will end their work and that will be the sign for the end of the world (aakhir al-zamaan).
Some people continue the story by saying that God will then interfer and prevent Gog and Magog to accomplish their destruction. That will be the day of judgement (yawm al-diin) followed by the day of resurrection (yawm al-qiyaama).
Commentary:
According to the Coran XVIII, 83-98, Dhu al-Qarnayn protected mankind against Gog and Magog by a wall of iron built between two mountains. There was no further attempt made by Gog and Magog to break through that wall.
However, the Hadith and some early writers like Tabari and Zamakhshari have similar stories as those told by the Somali (see E. van Donzel and C. Ott, "Yadjudj wa-Madjudj", Encyclopaedia of Islam, XI, 2nd ed., Leiden 2002, 231-234).
III. NEBI KHADAR - THE ITINERANT PROPHET
1. The itinerant prophet According to the belief of the Somalis, Nebi Khadar is a prophet, but not as great as the Prophets Mohamed or Jesus, wandering from one place to another. No one knows when he knocks at his door, but everybody has to be ready for these occasions in order to receive him at anytime. Also, it is unknown in which form Nebi Khadar will appear. He can show up as an elegant man and he can also be dressed very poorly.
The Somalis believe that he was granted eternal life to which God attached certain conditions. He must never stay very long at the same place, but he is obliged to wander as the wind from one place to another appearing and disappearing here and there. He must never marry or settle down. He prays for those who are friendly to him and who are consequently bestowed with great riches. Those who are unfriendly to him are ruined for ever.
2. Nebi Khadar's blessing Nebi Khadar is supposed to visit people’s houses mostly between sunset and night and to often appear in the disguise of a beggar. He then asks for alms only once and in a low voice. If the person does not hurry, Nebi Khadar will disappear quickly. It seems that he gives often a present in a small box and he advices people not to open it until morning. If people follow his advice, they will be a very rich for their whole life because they are thought to find in this box never ending gold coins. Even more so, their luck as rich persons will be inherited by their descendants.
3. How to recognize Nebi Khadar There is another story according to which Nebi Khadar can actually be recognized by one characteristic. He is supposed to have a right thumb with no bone in it, but only flesh. Thus, if one shakes hands with Nebi Khadar his thumb will bend backwards. If anyone identifies him in this way, he must grasp his hand until he gives him his blessing.
4. Reenactement of Nebi Khadar At Mogadishu poeple expect any beggar knocking at the door by the fall of the night to be Nebi Khadar. Poor people and children benefit from this expectation by chosing that time to ask for alms. Those in the house will then rush and present their alm in order not to disappoint the beggar who may prove to be indeed Nebi Khadar.
COMMENTARY TO NEBI KHADAR:
Legends concerning Khadar or Khadir are widespread in the Arabic World and one version is even alluded to in the Kuran (XVIII, 59-81). They more often deal with a 'saint' (wali or sayyid) than with a 'prophet' (nabi) and they are thought to go back to the Babylonian Epos of Gilgamesh, famous for the quest of immortality (A. J. Wensinck, 'Al-Khadir', Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed. vol. IV, Leiden 1927, 862). In Islam the desir for eternal life granted by a deity or obtained by a special herb can of course only survive in disguise. Three details of the Somali legend show nevertheless particular proximity to the story of Gilgamesh: Nebi Khadar is considered to be immortal (a status which Gilgamesh tried to obtain); his blessing in form of riches are thought to be an hereditary property (they are thus something immortal); the particularty concerning his thumb may be an allusion to the herb of eternity (in the available stories it was supposed to be eaten, but alternatively it might have been winded abound the thumb). For the Epos of Gilgamesh see T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness, New Haven 1976, 193-220. DL
IV. ARAWEELO
The folk tale of Araweelo fascinates Somali imagination more than any other orally transmitted story. It is normally told to girls, not to boys. Still, Somali poets present her as a beautiful and strong minded woman who was self confident and fully determined to realise whatever she wanted. This following is a brief account of the legend. 1. How Araweelo came to power
Once upon a time there was a legendary queen called Araweelo who ruled somewhere in Somalia. Her father was the previous king who had her as a daughter without any sons. Therefore she became his successor when he died. Her idea was to consolidate her reign by subduing men and increasing the power of all women in her kingdom.
2. Women are superior to men According to another version Araweelo was a woman who was dissatisfied with the division of labour between men and women consisting in the rulership of men and the subordinate housework of women. Having decided to change this situation unfair to all females she went to the women and told them that since they were giving birth to children they were better qualified to rule than men. She said: “We are more accommodating, more peaceful and more practical then men”.
3. Elimination of men One day all men were busy with their work. Therefore the women led by Araweelo seized all the weapons, rounded up the men and castrated most of them. Very few men were saved from being eunuchs, because they were needed for procreation. Whenever the women of her kingdoms delivered a baby-girl the newborn was accepted, if it was a baby-boy it was usually castrated except for those spared for the survival of mankind. Thus Araweelo could reign in all security for a long time.
4. Araweelo’s daughter fell in love Only one elder man called Oday Biiq (‘the wise coward’) could not stand to be imprisoned. He succeeded to escape and managed to survive in the wilderness. When Araweelo’s daughter had grown up she happened to met Oday Biiq in his solitude. She liked his kindness and his good sense and fell in love with him. Hence force she continued to see him in his hiding place.
5. Araweelo’s daughter gave birth to a boy In due time Araweelo’s daughter became pregnant and when she gave birth the newborn was a baby-boy. Araweelo wanted to castrate her grandchild but her daughter convinced her to delay this decision until he was an adolescent. But when this time came the young man took the initiative and killed his grandmother. Before dying Araweelo made a statement in form of a legacy for all women: “Never have confidence in any man”.
Commentary:
It is supposed that the grave of Araweelo is somewhere in Sanaag. People say that men throw stones on it while women put green leaves on it for the respect for her memory.
Frequent uses of the name of Araweelo:
If a girl is overconfident in herself she is jokingly compared with the legendary Araweelo. Some parents name their daughter Araweelo, because they simply admire this heroic Somali woman and they hope that their girl will be strong like her. Sometimes fathers make fun of their daughter, by calling her Araweelo, while in fact they want to encourage her to be strong minded. Somali women say ironically of themselves that they have a touch of Araweelo, when they feel that they were too rough to others.
V. THE END OF TIME - ADUUNYO GADOON - AKHIR AL-ZAMAN
1. Family
We will see many changes when the end of time is near. People will not respect each other; everyone will do whatever he wants regardless of the consequences; children will refuse to obey to their parents; parents themselves will not listen to each other. There will be no love between couples but only competition and hate. The husband will lie to his wife and the wife will do the same to him. Adultery will be wide spread. Men and women will live together without marriage just for their pleasure. If they decide to finish their cohabitation at any time, they will just go apart. Brothers and sisters will hate each others and compete endlessly; some will even stop talking to one other forever, so much they will be blinded by their reciprocal hatred. Anger will and antagonism will dominate them to the extent that they will avoid seeing one another; some will even commit fratricide.
2. Society
Dishonesty, corruption and perversity will invade every aspect of life. Liars and deceivers will be respected, usury and bribery will become virtues and dishonesty will be the way of normal life. People will drink alcohol everyday in great quantities and will become so addicted to it that nothing else matters except getting drunk and hilarious. Man will multiply inventions and constructions without limit and restraint. Scholars will falsify truth and praise hypocrisy. Knowledge will be vanishing and ignorance will become dominant.
3. Polity
Rulers will prefer war to peace just for the pleasure of destruction. They will be despots, oppress their people and kill anyone according to their feeling at the moment. The powerful will dictate whatever they like and virtue will disappear.
Great and small leaders will be corrupt to their bones, cruel and mischievous. Tyrants will rule in many places in the world, the other places will fall into anarchy and chaos. Everywhere war will be the rule and peace the exception, life will
be disrespected and death glorified.
4. Nature
There will be many signs that indicate the approaching end of our universe: The sun will rise in the west and set in the east, day will be night and night day and people will not know when to rest and when to work. There will be inundations and earthquakes, thunder and chaos everywhere. Man will be so terror-stricken that he will forget the language to speak to his fellow-man but wild animals will be able to communicate with the people. There will be terrible droughts in many places, producing famine and men will become like beasts eating their fellow-men. Other places will be over-flooded and the little left will be destroyed by man’s fighting. Meteorites which fall on our earth and destroy of nature what man left.
5. Punishment
In the end many false messiahs and self-proclaimed prophets will appear performing great spectacles, deceiving people’s eyes and giving them false hopes. People will follow them without hesitation and thus run into even greater confusion. Finally at the end of time, God will send a tremendous asteroid that will smash the earth and let it fall into pieces. Thus he will put an end to our planet because we deviated from his plan by our foolishness, blindness and arrogances.
VI. BEAUTY OF JOSEPH - QURUH DII NEBI YUUSUF
I. The lines on the hand
God created the beauty (quruh) and then divided it into two. He gave one half to the prophet Joseph and the other half to the normal human beings. One day at the courtyard of the Pharaoh women were cutting meat into thin long strips to prepare oodka’ (the meat is cut and then dried). While doing their work, they suddenly saw Joseph who lived by that time in the Pharaoh’s palace passing the courtyard. All of them were chocked and overwhelmed by the beauty of the Prophet Joseph so that each of them cut her hand. From that time onward human beings have lines on their hands
II. The temptation of Nabi Yuusuf
The wife of the Pharaoh tried to attract the attention of Yusuf by all means. One day she ordered him to collect an object from her room. She followed him and made advances to him. When he refused to give in and tried to escape from her instead, she got hold of him by his shirt. He succeeded to free himself but a piece of his shirt remained in her hands. Furious about the humiliation to have been refused, she told the people of the palace that Yusuf had tried to rape her. Therefore Nabi Yusuf was thrown into prison and he remained there until the day of judgement. The judges were confronted with two versions of what had happened. They came to the conclusion that if the piece of the cloth was the front side of the shirt then Yusuf was guilty and the wife of Pharaoh was innocent, but if the piece belonged to the back side of the shirt then Yusuf was the innocent victim of a false accusation. When they realized that it was the back side of the shirt, Yusuf was set free and his honor was fully re-established.
Note 1: When Somali popular singers - of gabay and heeloo – want to describe the utmost beauty of a woman they equalize it to the beauty of Prophet Joseph (quruh dii nabi Yuusuf). It has to be remembered that physical beauty – sometimes to the detriment of character – is in Somali culture the most important quality of human beings.
Note 2: The episode of cutting the hands exists in a different form also in the Jewish legend of Nabi Yusef. In this case the women were pealing oranges with a knife and they cut their hands because they could not turn away their eyes from Yusuf who was overwhelmingly handsome. Consequently the oranges in their hands were covered with blood (Ginzberg, L., The Legends of the Jews, vol. II, Philadelphia 1920, p. 51).
Note 3: The episode figures also in a different form in Arab legends of Joseph . In stead of meat in the Somali tale the Arabic version of al-Kisa’i has “the women were cutting citrons in slices“(The tales of the Prophets, tr. W. M. Thackston, Boston, 1978, p.176). Moreover, the Somali tale is more explicit by claiming that the lines on the hands of human beings are from that time.
Shamsa Dirie
Comment:
The Somali legend of Nabi Yusuf is precious because of its etiological nature, i.e. it explains a particular feature of the human body. Since this trait is absent from the Jewish and the Arab versions of the story, the Somali version is at this point presumably closer to the authentic but lost Israelite story. DL
VII. ETIOLOGICAL STORIES
THE ORIGIN OF SCENTED GUM TREES
A very long time ago there was a Queen in the Horn of Africa. One day, her kingdom was attacked from all sides at the same time. By miracle she succeeded to escape from her enemies and took refuge somewhere in mountains in the north of Somalia. There she bursts into tears and begged God to make her a gift in order to comfort her about the loss of her children and her kingdom. In consequence, in all the places where her tears had fallen scented gum trees begun to grow.
(Mohamed Abdi, Histoire des Croyances en Somalie, Paris 1992, p. 61).
VIII. ANNIMAL LEGENDS (RICHARD BURTON)
According to a Somali legend the red and long-legged plover bird (hidinhiito) was originally eating meat and was first living with a society of birds of prey. One night however her companions devoured all the provisions while she slept. From that time on she swore never to fly with friends, never to eat flesh, and never to rest during the hours of darkness. Therefore Legends concerning animals
When travelling in Northern Somalia 1854, Richard Burton made the following interesting observation concerning ideas the people have with respect to certain animals.
when she sees anything in the dark she repeats her oaths, and keeps careful watch all night. There is a larger variety of this bird, which, purblind during daytime, rises from under the traveller’s feet with loud cries.
The Somali have also legendary ideas about several other kinds of birds. There is for instance the Galow whose cry is held to predict bad omens. He is so called from his note Gal! Gal! Come in! Come in! (gal or soo gal means indeed “come in”). When the cry of the Galow is heard over a kraal, the people say, "Let us leave this place, the Galow has spoken!" At night they listen for the Fiin, also an ill-omened bird. When a man declares "the Fiin did not sleep last night," it is considered advisable to shift ground.
Burton, Richard, First Footsteps in Africa, London and New York, 1856, p. 118.
1999 "Äthiopien_im_Kontext_der_semitischen_Welt: Die Königin von Saba als kanaanäische Liebesgöttin", in: H P. Hahn and G. Spittler (eds.), Afrika und die Globalisierung, Münster, Lit-Verlag, 269-277. (Ethiopia in the context of the Semitic world: The Queen of Sheba as the [legendarised] Canaanite deity of love).
Reviewed by M. Köckert in: Zeitschrift für Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 113_2001_p. 120
2004b "Ishmael and Isaac in Somalia", in D. Lange, Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa: Africa-Centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives, Dettelbach 2004, 254-261.
The sub-chapter deals with the clans of Somalia and their relationship with the history of South Arabia in the pre-Christian era.
Extract of D. Lange, Ancient Kingdoms pp. 258-9: Chart of Somali clans: The Ishamelite background of the two closely related clan-families of Isaaq and Darood